Cyberwarfare Readiness in the Maritime Environment

Diop Ausar Harris

Department of Electrical Engineering and Cyber Systems, United States Coast Guard Academy,

New London, Connecticut, U.S.A.

Keywords: Cybersecurity, Cyberwarfare, Information Systems, Maritime Environment, Port Security.

Abstract: Cybersecurity ensures that sensitive information and data are protected. Even so, there are still roadblocks

that impede an organization’s ability to uphold cybersecurity. This study provides an analysis of challenges

present in the maritime environment that may impede the preparedness of cyberwarfare. The research showed

that the United States tends to be more vulnerable to cyberattacks due to its dependence on information

technologies. Numerous cases also showed that the United States, compared to other powers, lacks somewhat

in defensive capabilities. Many of the breaches in cybersecurity were due to a lack of cyber awareness leading

to human error accidents. Vessels and ports are also likely targets during a cyberwar due to their importance

in a country’s economy and security. These challenges present in the maritime environment must be dealt

with to prepare for a potential cyberwar. For effective cyberwarfare readiness moving forward, states should

aim to increase cybersecurity awareness, improve capabilities, and promote cooperation between states.

Proposition for continued research on cyberwarfare readiness in the maritime environment by academic

researchers and practitioners is recommended.

1 INTRODUCTION

Cyberspace is practically the newest frontier. Like the

sea and airspace in the past, the discussion of how

cyberspace can be used and regulated is a huge topic.

This makes sense, as cyberspace is evolving so

rapidly that many issues and challenges arise. The

cyberspace domain consists of numerous systems

such as satellites, computers, Wi-Fi, storage devices,

and many other systems we utilize every day (Junio,

2013). However, the increased utilization of

cyberspace creates a threat that those in the past

would never have even imagined, the prospect of

cyberwarfare.

Cyberwarfare can be described as a war

conducted in and from computers as well as the

networks connecting them, waged by states or their

proxies against another or multiple states (Streeter,

2013). A cyberwar today would be tremendously

expensive whether it is deadly or not. The likelihood

of attacks is also increasing as countries develop and

advance their cyber capabilities (Korstanje, 2016).

With the world becoming more dependent on cyber

and information technology (IT), the prospect of a

cyberwar being prominent in future conflicts is a

growing concern that calls for serious attention.

Cyberwarfare threatens numerous industries and

domains that are essential for our society to function.

One of these is the maritime environment. Ports and

terminals are critical infrastructures, which make

them prime targets for cyberwarfare attacks (de la

Peña Zarzuelo, 2021). There are currently numerous

naval forces and maritime security organizations that

maintain security both on and off the homeland.

There are still existing challenges that could prevent

the maritime environment from being prepared for

cyberwarfare. However, proper action can be taken to

resolve these issues by examining these roadblocks

and information systems.

2 METHODOLOGY

The main purpose of this paper is to identify the

current state of the maritime environment when it

comes to cyberwarfare readiness. The paper also

seeks to emphasize the need for a greater focus on

cyberwarfare readiness in the maritime environment,

and what actions and plans can be practiced in the

future to ensure the domain is ready for potential

conflict.

To gain an understanding of the maritime

environment’s current readiness for cyberwar, as well

as developing potential solutions to build upon certain

areas, sources that explained cyberwarfare and how it

threatens national security were used. This involved

Harris, D.

Cyberwarfare Readiness in the Maritime Environment.

DOI: 10.5220/0011068400003179

In Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems (ICEIS 2022) - Volume 2, pages 119-125

ISBN: 978-989-758-569-2; ISSN: 2184-4992

119

looking at both the technical and international political

sides of cyberwar. Librarian databases were used to

look for sources that could be beneficial. Scholarly

websites were utilized to search for empirical studies

that would help analyze the maritime environment and

cyberspace more in-depth providing analysis and data.

Internet search systems were also used to find general

sources that could provide some facts or insight on the

topic of the maritime environment’s readiness and

cyber, and what roadblocks commonly found in

organizations can impede their readiness. All of this

resulted in initiating research and a better

understanding of the increasing concerns of

cyberwarfare in the maritime environment.

3 FINDINGS

3.1 Dangerous Components

Cyberwarfare is on the rise due to numerous

components of the nature of cyber-attacks and

cyberspace. Five reasons are the vulnerability of the

Internet, high return on investments, inadequate cyber

defenses, plausible deniability, and the participation

of non-state actors (Green, 2015). Attacks like

Stuxnet have shown the world that cyber-attacks can

be extremely sophisticated. Stuxnet was very

selective about its choice of target, unlike most earlier

worms before it. It was aimed specifically at a

physical and military target, while also being specific

about the conditions of the targets (Chen, 2010). It

also has been reported to have unusually complex

code, large size for malware, and written in multiple

languages (Cyber Threat Source Descriptions, n.d.).

Stuxnet is estimated to have infected 50,000–100,000

computers (Chen, 2010).

Another incident that showed that United States

(U.S.) systems were vulnerable was Solar Sunrise. In

February 1998, numerous Department of Defense

(DoD) networks were attacked due to the exploitation

of a well-known vulnerability in the Solaris computer

system. The attackers had the goal of planting a

program to gather and later collect data. Despite the

attackers only having moderately sophisticated tools,

over 500 computer systems were compromised.

While the Justice Department claimed that no

classified information has compromised during this

attack, the incident showed that U.S. information

systems can very quickly be compromised, putting

the national security of the U.S. at risk (Johnson,

2015).

Another concern of cyber-attacks is that they

often bring indirect effects once they are executed.

Attacks can bring collateral damage to those who may

not even have been intended to be affected, as the

attacks have a large radius of effects. These attacks

are highly unpredictable, as there are numerous ways

they can behave and could have unforeseen

consequences. Cyber-attacks are also known for their

direct effects bringing short-term reversible effects,

but indirect ones causing damage that usually is

irreversible. They can have dire consequences that

indirectly disrupt real-world missions and tasks that

could put lives at risk (Parks & Duggan, 2011).

There are numerous similarities between securing

cyberspace to the sea and airspace. The sea was

largely secured in the nineteenth century, while

airspace was the main domain actively being secured

and discussed in the twentieth. Global powers now

wish to do the same with cyberspace. They wish for

it to become more secure for people and businesses to

operate in. Cyberspace however is ungovernable in

nature, as it constantly evolves at a fast pace. Many

threats could also hide in cyberspace without

governments being able to identify them. It is both

inevitably threatening and inhabited by unknown

antagonists. Not to mention the fact that the more

dependent states become on information systems, the

more vulnerable they become to information warfare.

These aspects of cyber security discourse prove that

the domain is both unique and unpredictable (Boyes,

2014).

3.2 Foreign Organizations and

Governments

National cyberwarfare programs pose an enormous

threat to global interests, especially regarding the

maritime environment. Among the array of cyber

threats, it is mainly government-sponsored programs

that are developing capabilities with the prospect of

causing extensive and long-duration damage to U.S.

critical infrastructures (Daum, 2019). Statistics show

that 26.3% of all cyberwarfare strikes are directed to

the U.S. (Cvetićanin, 2020). The number of cyber-

attacks in the U.S. and other countries will likely

increase in the future, as there was a large increase in

cyberwarfare activities between 2009 and 2018, with

attacks surging by 440% and currently showing no

signs of slowing down (Cvetićanin, 2020). Many

global organizations are also indicating that they are

having difficulties dealing with cyber-attacks, and

20% of them consider global espionage their number-

one threat (Cvetićanin, 2020). Another thing to note

is that when it comes to the maritime domain and

naval forces, the nature of cyberspace encourages the

offensive military capabilities of the enemy, meaning

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adversary states now have potentially dangerous

weapons at their disposal (Dwarakish & Salim, 2015).

3.3 Importance of Maritime

The maritime industry is of great importance to the

global economy. Marine transportation is 80% by

volume of global trade and accounts for over 70% of

its value (Chen, 2010). The maritime sector

encompasses a wide range of services, such as the

transportation of goods and people, various port

services, and auxiliary or supporting services (Geers,

2008). As opposing powers often try to attack and

compromise their enemy’s resources, power, and

wealth during wartime, the maritime environment

would certainly be a prime target during a cyberwar.

3.4 Lack of Knowledge

An issue that cannot be ignored is the low level of

cyber security awareness and culture within the

maritime sector (DiRenzo, Drumhiller, & Roberts,

2017). A reason for this is that the maritime sector

traditionally has only had to deal with physical

domains in the past. However, information

technology continues to grow important in the

maritime sector every day. This reliance on the

technology while beneficial for conducting

operations also makes vessels and ports more exposed

and vulnerable. If most individuals within the

maritime sector are not aware of the danger of cyber-

attacks, then it becomes difficult to effectively

respond and develop mitigation plans.

A major weakness in our information technology

systems can be mistakes done by people. Human error

is a major contributing factor to cyber breaches in

general. Over 90% of all cyber security breaches are

caused by preventable employee errors in both the

public and private sectors (Cvetićanin, 2020).

Maritime workers need to have a good grasp on how

cyber-attacks can threaten operations, and how cyber

vulnerabilities can affect others both at sea and in

ports. While maritime organizations have gotten

better at addressing this issue, there still is a need for

constant monitoring and improvements in the

education of cyber security.

3.5 Global Navigation

One of the biggest threats that cyberwarfare presents

to global navigation is Global Navigation Satellite

Systems (GNSS) jamming and spoofing activities. It

is estimated that around 87% of merchant vessels rely

upon GNSS (DiRenzo, Drumhiller, & Roberts, 2017).

Most countries today can jam GPS, and many such as

North Korea have already done so (Dombrowski &

Demchak, 2014). This indicates that using spoofing

and jamming as tactics in war is very possible and

could bring extremely disastrous results.

GNS Spoofing is when adversaries make a GPS

receiver calculate incorrect positioning and timing

information (Andronjna, Brcko, Pavic, & Greidanus,

2020). By sensing a similar yet slightly stronger

signal, adversaries could easily take over vessels with

GPS, confusing and directing them where they want.

Spoofing has become easily available at the consumer

level, with instructions and kits for building a

spoofing device being offered for around $300

(Dombrowski & Demchak, 2014). With spoofing

devices being easily assessable, numerous vessels

could very well become vulnerable depending on the

adversary’s sophistication in technique and

technology.

GNS Jamming differs from spoofing as it involves

overpowering the GPS satellite signals locally so the

receiver can no longer operate properly. GNSS

jammers are normally illegal in the U.S., Canada, and

Europe. However, it is still possible for jammers of

various sizes and power ratings to be purchased off

the internet. Due to this, GNS jamming devices are

easily accessible to many, including enemies to the

U.S. (DiRenzo, Drumhiller, & Roberts, 2017). Small-

handed jammers are also normally difficult for law

enforcement agencies to detect, as they can be used

intermittently without being detected, are highly

mobile, and can be disposed of quickly if needed

(Dombrowski & Demchak, 2014). Many vessels

primarily depend on GPS to navigate safely, and

without it, would be at risk. Jamming can very well

result in a ship’s systems either failing or giving false

and misleading information.

3.6 Port Security

Ports are integral to our economy. They are a very

important component of marine transportation and

the land transport chain. Port security against cyber

risks is something that needs to always be maintained.

However, there currently exist minimal clear

standards and requirements addressing critical

maritime infrastructure. Ports have been shown in

past events to be almost effortless to penetrate. An

example is the hacking of the Port of San Francisco,

which relocated the port in cyberspace twenty miles

north and became problematic in foggy weather. Due

to their great importance to both the economy and

national security, ports are a prime target for cyber-

attacks during wartime. There is a dire need for

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standardized policies for assessing, containing, and

mitigating cyber risks (Andronjna, Brcko, Pavic, &

Greidanus, 2020).

4 DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Increasing Cyber Awareness

The first course of action that needs to be taken is to

further educate mariners. Human errors and

misjudgments are the cause of most successful cyber-

attacks (Hørthe, 2020). Lack of skill and lack of

responsibilities by everyone are also common

challenges that come with people (Teoh, Mahmood, &

Dzazali, 2018).

Training and awareness are crucial to ensure

people are educated and cyber security can be better

maintained (The Three-Pillar Approach to Cyber

Security: Data and Information Protection, 2020).

Organizations have already begun promoting

awareness of cyber security. This is a crucial step,

because if the world does not acknowledge the

dangers of cyberspace and the growing trend of

attacks, then this incomprehension will act as a barrier

and cause all to be susceptible. People must

understand how the dangers of cyber-attacks and

cyberwar differ from traditional threats. Cyberwarfare

is unique due to being an evolving artificial world and

deals more with versatility as opposed to mobility

(Sheldon, 2016). Principles such as the lack of

physical limitations, kinetic effects, stealth, mutability

and inconsistency, identity and privileges, dual-use,

and infrastructure control are tied to cyberwarfare.

These attributes need to be acknowledged when not

only building our capabilities but developing defenses

against enemies as well (Saltzman, 2013). There can

also be models developed based on research and

analysis of past attacks. This makes it easier to

determine the risk to help personnel with the

assessment of dangerous scenarios (Albahar, 2019).

To ensure that cyber awareness training is

continued to be improved upon, the Coast Guard

could put more resources into the training and

regulations on cyber-security. Standards on topics

such as alcohol and fraternization are commonly

known because they are frequently discussed in

taught and discussed. Maritime workers are also used

to what regulations and standards their vessels and

ports are expected to uphold. Due to this consistency

and accountability, people have a good understanding

of what is expected of them, and this helps prevent

potential situations where these rules would have

been broken. The same needs to be done with

cyberspace. Members need frequent discussions and

education on the topic to ensure they are well

equipped to deal with, respond accordingly, and

enforce regulations in scenarios concerning

cyberspace.

4.2 Further Developing Capabilities

Continuing to develop and improve upon our

technology is also essential, as hardware and software

capabilities can help guarantee reliable cyber security

(What Are the 3 Pillars of Cyber Security? 2020).

Upholding excellent offensive cyber capabilities

allows a state to deter cyber-attacks and defend itself

if necessary.

For deterrence of cyber-attacks to be successful,

there must be the existence of capability (weapons),

the credibility of the threat, and the capability to

convey the threatening message to a potential

opponent. The existence of capability makes it clear to

both sides in a potential conflict that choosing to fight

could come with a large cost. The weapon must be

able to be used if needed, proving the credibility. The

challenger must also be aware of the defender’s

willingness to use them if necessary (Nguyen, 2013).

When needed, countries in times of war must have the

capabilities to be able to support and work alongside

their allies.

As states get attacked by any kind of attack,

defenses built to counter them are expected to follow

(Hildreth, 2001). Many argue that the offense always

seems to be more advantageous than cyber defenses,

as cyber-attacks are cheap, quick, and usually easier

to carry out, while cyber defense on the other hand is

a time-consuming and costly task that requires more

proper knowledge. The U.S. fits this idea, as it is one

of the most powerful countries when it comes to

offensive cyber capabilities, but also one of the

weakest ones defensively (Valeriano & Maness,

2018). The offense-defense balance concerns for

cyberspace however are often exaggerated. Cyber

offense does have numerous advantages when

compared to cyber defense, such as speed and ease to

do. However, cyber offense is checked by the

inability to predict and control the consequences the

attack may bring (Lupovici, 2011). Having both

strong offensive and defensive cyber capabilities is

essential for countries to protect themselves from

threats.

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine

learning (ML) are possible ways to develop

capabilities both offensively and defensively. Both

methods help reduce human error, a common issue

with maintaining cyber-security (Sobers, 2020). Both

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are also adaptive, allowing them to be modified to fit

the specific needs of ports and maritime

organizations. Hackers can still however find ways to

get around AI and ML algorithms. The algorithms can

be deceived and even used maliciously for criminal

purposes (Kuzlu, Fair, & Guler, 2021). Human

oversight might still be necessary to ensure no drastic

issues arise. Even so, with continuous research and

development with the technology, AI and ML

algorithms could help improve the security and

cyberwarfare readiness of the maritime environment.

The U.S. Coast Guard could also play a huge role

in addressing the major concern with GNSS. Since

many vessels depend on GPS, Coast Guard inspectors

can ensure that the vessel’s receivers and antennas are

structured and placed where they will have integrity

in their monitoring. This can ensure that they are less

likely to receive signals not from space. The Coast

Guard could also work alongside the government to

provide multiple GNSS. While these satellite signals

may still be vulnerable, it would help mariners as they

would have more than one GNSS that they can

depend on (Dombrowski & Demchak, 2014). This

could help reduce the danger that GNSS spoofing and

jamming currently presents to the maritime

environment.

4.3 International Discussion

Another course of action that could help the global

maritime environment would have to be the discussion

between states concerning cyberwarfare. Maritime

organizations across the world can come together to

express the concerns cyberwarfare presents and put

plans in motion to counter this potential problem. The

United Nations could discuss the topic and come up

with viable solutions to prevent the unimaginable

damage an all-out cyberwar could cause. This would

be like nuclear deference, as many countries would

discuss and make agreements to limit the spread and

use of weapons. In a global world, the consequences

of a cyber-attack affecting a single terminal can

quickly spread to the entire supply chain and

negatively affect many (de la Peña Zarzuelo, 2021).

The use of cyber weapons for warfare threatens the

entire world, and it is in everyone’s benefit to come to

an agreement on how to ensure the safety of the world

is ensured (Valeriano & Maness, 2018).

An increase in the discussion between states about

potential cyberwar could result in treaties being

developed. The treaties would have the goal of

decreasing or preventing the usage of cyber-attacks in

various scenarios. While states may never hold a firm

grasp on cyberspace and the technological

components like other physical weapons, they may at

least be able to make treaties that encourage states to

utilize cyberspace in more peaceful matters. They

may also seek to make treaties that allow states to

cooperate in developing cyber defense systems

combined with mitigation plans to better respond to

attacks.

The execution of this strategy could help

minimize the probability of cyberwar. This would not

be easy, as the future is unknown since cyberspace is

unpredictable and ever-changing. Therefore, constant

education and training on how to protect our

infrastructure need to be pushed heavily. Officials

should bring these discussions up more often during

official conferences and meetings. They must then

make policies to help address concerns and ensure the

citizens of the world stay protected. These processes

must be constantly updated to ensure they can

effectively reduce the risk from ever-changing cyber

threats (Teoh, Mahmood, & Dzazali, 2018).

Following through on all of this could be a big step in

addressing the cyberwarfare dilemma.

4.4 Commitment from Leadership

To accomplish the prementioned actions, there needs

to be a commitment from many leaders in state

governments and maritime organizations. There must

be a serious commitment for improvement for true

progress to be made. Without leadership earnestly

examining and being willing to address the issues

concerning cyberwarfare readiness in the maritime

environment, progress will be inconsistent (Bodeau,

Graubart, & Fabius-Greene, 2010). Support from

leadership will be needed to implement training and

education, improve cyber capabilities, and set up

discussions to ensure cyberwarfare preparedness.

5 CONCLUSION

Numerous roadblocks in the maritime environment

have been identified and found to potentially harm the

domain’s readiness in a cyberwar. Many in the

maritime environment are not fully aware of the

dangers that cyberwarfare could bring. It is probably

safe to assume for many, the thought has never crossed

their mind. The increased dependence on vessels’

electronic navigation systems may also be at a huge

risk. While one may assume that a ship is essentially

isolated at sea, modern-day ships are always

communicating with a network and satellites.

Spoofing or jamming attempts can render navigation

systems useless and put many in potential danger.

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123

Even ports due to their importance in a country’s

economy and overall stability become a prime target

of cyber-attacks for wartime purposes.

Everything considered, there are plenty of actions

that can be taken to address the roadblocks of

cyberwarfare readiness. Improvements in education

in the maritime environment have already been

occurring, and as long as it is constantly reassessed

and improved upon, can lead to having

servicemembers more knowledgeable and ready for

cyberwarfare. Making sure that naval forces have

sufficient offensive and defensive cyber capabilities

is also crucial. Developing and maintaining robust

monitoring and response systems and capabilities is

essential to protect national security (Lieber, 2014).

Analyzing problems that are occurring, such as GNS

spoofing and jamming, and coming up with methods

to reduce or solve the issue, is also something that

must be practiced. Cooperation between states to

promote international rules of the road detailing

appropriate conduct and regulations will also prove to

be of benefit. All of this can be possible with the

commitment of many of the leaders of governments

and maritime organizations.

For future objectives, continued research by

academic researchers and practitioners so further

knowledge and action are achieved regarding

cyberwarfare readiness in the maritime environment

is suggested. Cyberspace is ungovernable in nature,

as it constantly evolves at a fast pace. It is both

inevitably threatening and inhabited by unknown

antagonists. The domain is both unique and

unpredictable. This however does not minimize the

need for cyber-security practices. They instead may

increase the need and desire to do so (Boyes, 2014).

Constant attention to the changes in cyberspace,

along with addressing arising challenges can help the

maritime environment be better prepared for the

possibility of cyberwar.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this research paper could not have

been possible without the guidance of Dr. Angela

Jackson-Summers, an Assistant Professor of

Information Systems at the United States Coast Guard

Academy.

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