Novel Role of Transcriptional Factor Kaiso in HIV Infection

Zainab H. Alwan

, Gopal Reddy

and Balasubramanyam Karanam

Department of Community Health, Institute of Medical Technology, Middle Technical University Baghdad, Iraq

College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee AL36088, U.S.A.

Department of Biology and Center for Cancer Research, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL36088, U.S.A.

Keywords: Kaiso, HIV-1, Transcriptional Factor, Zinc Finger, CD4, Viral Load.

Abstract: The role of Kaiso, a POZ-ZF transcriptional factor in HIV infection, which has been disparagingly affecting

African Natives as well as African Americans, has not been well studied. For these reasons, this research

aimed to investigate the level of expression and the role of Kaiso in HIV-1 infected African Natives compared

with patients in the United States. In silico data of 185 whole blood samples were analyzed to study gene

expression by array in GEO (Gene expression Omnibus) dataset from the National Center for Biotechnology

Information (NCBI). Different bioinformatics approaches were used to analyze the data. Two or more groups

of samples were compared using GEO2R to identify differentially expressed genes across experimental

conditions. Pathways that were significantly associated with specific gene sets were determined by Gene Set

Enrichment analysis (GSEA). Results showed higher level of Kaiso expression in HIV-1 patients compared

to healthy control (p = 3.89e-10), and it was significantly higher in African Natives compared to United States

patients (p = 0.002). Importantly, this study revealed a negative correlation between Kaiso expression and

CD4+ T cell count in HIV-1 infected African Native patients (p = 0.003). This negative correlation between

Kaiso and CD4+ T cell count was accompanied by increased viral load in African Natives with a higher viral

set point compared to US HIV-1 patients. These data may at least partly explain the reasons for faster

progression to AIDS in African Natives than seen in US patients. Kaiso associated enrichment pathways

showed that Kaiso upregulation may contribute to CD4 depletion in HIV-1 infection, and may upregulate

HIV associated neurological impairment marker genes. The results also showed that Kaiso expression may

also be associated with increased Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway by downregulating GSK3β, MAPK1 and

MAPK3 through different downregulated pathways in African Native patients. This study suggests that Kaiso

may play a role in the crosstalk between different pathways in HIV-1 infection. In conclusion, the present

study suggests, for the first time, that Kaiso expression levels may possibly play a role in the faster

acceleration of HIV-1 infection towards AIDS in African ancestry patients and this may be through the

involvement of Wnt/βcatenin signaling pathway. Data of this study also suggests that Kaiso expression level

may contribute to increased crosstalk between different pathways in HIV-1 pathogenesis. Further studies are

needed to fully delineate the role of Kaiso in different HIV1 infected ethnic groups through the involvement

of different intermediary pathways.

1 INTRODUCTION

Since the first reports of AIDS cases in early 1980s,

\HIV virus around the world and approximately 32

million people have died. The African region remains

most severely affected, with nearly one in every 25

adults (4.1%) living with HIV and accounting for

nearly two-third of the people living with HIV

worldwide (WHO, https://www.who.int/gho/hiv/en/).

More than half (54%) of the people living with HIV

infections around the world are from East and South

Africa (UNAIDS’AIDSinfo’, 2019).



However, different studies reveal that infection

with HIV occur more in African born black

immigrants rather than U.S. born blacks (Johnson et

al., 2010; Kent, 2005; Kerani et al., 2008; Ashton et

al., 2012) and HIV prevalence was higher in African

born compared to US born blacks and US white

(Ashton et al., 2012). Racial disparities have been

indicated in both HIV-1 (CDC, 2017; Hall et al.,

2007; Klein et al., 2014) and in different human

cancers (Abisoye-Ogunniyan et al., 2018; Bassey-

Archibong et al., 2017; Jones et al., 2014; Jones et al.,

2012; Jones et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016).



Alwan, Z., Reddy, G. and Karanam, B.

Novel Role of Transcriptional Factor Kaiso in HIV Infection.

DOI: 10.5220/0010781100003123

In Proceedings of the 15th International Joint Conference on Biomedical Engineering Systems and Technologies (BIOSTEC 2022) - Volume 3: BIOINFORMATICS, pages 89-98

ISBN: 978-989-758-552-4; ISSN: 2184-4305

Kaiso is Caribbean slang for calypso music, which

accompanied the late-night cloning of this gene.

Kaiso is a 672 amino acid protein belonging to the

BTB/POZ (broad complex, tram track, bric à

brac/pox virus and zinc finger) family of zinc finger

transcription factors (Albagli et al., 1995; Bardwell

and Treisman, 1994). In contrast to many

transcription factors, Kaiso as a transcriptional

regulator with bimodal DNA-binding specificity,

which binds to methylated CGCG and to the non-

methylated consensus KAISO-binding site (KBS)

TCCTGCNA. A few reports have been published

illustrating the role of Kaiso in different types of

cancers (Pierre et al., 2019). In addition, Kaiso

expression is correlated to racial disparities in

different types of cancer; some of these studies

correlate the nuclear expression of Kaiso with

aggressiveness of tumors and metastases in African

Americans (US African) compared to white patients

(Jones et al., 2014; Jones et al., 2012; Bassey-

Archibong et al., 2017).



To our knowledge, no studies have been reported

so far on the expression levels of Kaiso in HIV-

infected people of different ethnic backgrounds/ races

and the role Kaiso may play in infection and

replication of HIV. For these reasons, the objective of

this study were to investigate the role of Kaiso

expression by analyzing in vivo HIV-1 infected

patients dataset (NCBI) in different races and ethnic

groups. Bioinformatics and statistical analysis tools

are used to analyze data.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

To achieve our aim to determine the expression levels

of Kaiso in HIV-infected and uninfected people of

different ethnic/racial backgrounds, in silico data of

185 whole blood samples (from United States, and

Africa) with or without HIV-1 infection was analyzed

by gene array to study gene expression. Geo dataset

from the NCBI’s (National Center for Biotechnology

Information) Gene expression Omnibus (GEO)

accessible through GEO Series accession numbers

GSE29429 were used GSE# (http://www.

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gov/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE#).



The gene symbol names associated with each data

set were pulled from each GPL file and merged with

its GSE read using the R merge function. Gene

expression data were analyzed to determine the role

of Kaiso in HIV-1 infection.



2.1 Geo Dataset Analysis

To determine if Kaiso has a role in HIV-1 infection,

expressed genes were subjected to data analysis

using:



1. GEO2R, NCBI (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/geo2r/).

GEO2R was used to compare two or more groups

of samples in order to identify genes that are

differentially expressed across experimental

conditions, based on the R programming language

that provides tools for the analysis of high-

throughput genomic data. Results are presented as

a table of genes ordered by significance. 2. GSEA

(Gene Set Enrichment Analysis)

http://software.broadinstitute.org/gsea/index.jsp.

(http://software.broadinstitute.org/gsea/index.jsp)

. GSEA is a computational method that

determines whether a priorily defined set of genes

shows statistically significant, concordant

differences between two biological states (e.g.,

phenotypes). 3. RStudio (http://Rstudio.org) used

for statistical computing and graphics. 4. Excel

and XLSTAT for further analysis and graphics. 5.

GraphPad prism for data analysis and graphics.



2.2 Statistical Analysis

Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation

(SD). The significance of differences between healthy

control and HIV-1 infected groups was evaluated

using One Way ANOVA, Two Way ANOVA, and t-

test analysis. Differences were considered significant

when P < 0.05.

3 RESULTS

3.1 HIV-1 Demographic Data Analysis 

Microarray gene expression profiles for 185 patients

from Gene expression Omnibus (GEO) dataset were

downloaded from the National Center for

Biotechnology Information (NCBI). One hundred

forty-seven samples were from HIV1 –infected

patients and thirty-eight samples were from healthy

control people (Table 1). Among the HIV-1 positive

patients, 130 were male and 17 were females. Among

the control healthy people, 22 were male and 16 were

females (Table 1).



In this study, age range was 20-66 years old of

whites and African American HIV-1 patients with the

peak rate at the age of 38 and 28 respectively. While,

age range was 18-38 for African Natives with peak

rate at the age of 18 with infected patients.



BIOINFORMATICS 2022 - 13th International Conference on Bioinformatics Models, Methods and Algorithms

Table 1: Clinical and pathological characteristics of HIV-1

patients-Whole Blood GSE29429.

3.2 Kaiso Expression in HIV-1

Infection Is Significantly Associated

with Gender, Race, and Ethnicity



Dataset were examined using R program for Kaiso

expression, which was found to be upregulated in

HIV-1 infected patients compared to healthy controls

samples (Figure 1-A).



Of the 185 whole blood samples collected from

acute HIV-1 patients (GSE29429), 94 samples were

from African Natives and 91 samples were from the

United States. Their clinical and pathological

characteristics are shown in Table 1. Importantly,

significant differences in Kaiso expression were

observed among different race groups. Kaiso

expression was significantly higher in African

Natives as compared to both African Americans (US

African) and White Caucasians (p = 0.004 and 0.04,

respectively) (Figure 1-B). All the results after this

step were analyzed by comparing African Natives to

United States (U.S) patients since Kaiso were

significantly higher in African Natives compared to

U.S patients (p value 0.002) (Figure 1-C).



Results of RStudio analysis of Kaiso expression

in HIV-1 infected and healthy control samples

demonstrated higher Kaiso expression in HIV-1

patients compared to healthy controls. However,

differences in the expression levels were not

statistically significant (Figure 1-A). while, a highly

significant difference was observed in males

compared to females in acute HIV infected patients (p

=0.002) (Figure 1-D).



Kaiso expression was significantly higher in both

male and female African Natives compared to U.S

acute HIV patients (p = 0.04) (Figure 1-E). Kaiso

expression was also significantly higher in younger

age African patients (mean age 24.7 ± 5.2) in

comparison to U.S patients (mean age 38.8 ± 13.6) (p

< 0.0001).



Figure 1: In HIV-1 infection, Ethnicity, Gender are significantly associated with High expression of Kaiso. R program used

for the analysis and graphics A. Higher Kaiso expression in overall HIV patients (n=87) compared to healthy (n=38). B. Kaiso

is significantly higher in African Native compared to African American (US African) and white Caucasian groups with p

value 0.004 and 0.04 respectively. C. Kaiso is significantly higher in African ethnic group (n=67) in comparison to US patients

(n=20) (p = 0.002). D. Significant gender differences (p = 0.002) in overall HIV males with high Kaiso expression compared

to females, graphpad prism was used for significance analysis and the graphics that show a significant higher Kaiso expression

in African ethnic HIV males and females compared to US males and females with p = 0.0436 (ANOVA test) as shown in (E). 

Novel Role of Transcriptional Factor Kaiso in HIV Infection

3.3 Trends in Kaiso Expression during

HIV Disease Course



Kaiso expression measured by weeks through HIV

progression (from enrollment to week 24) in US and

African patients, the results showed a significant

higher rate of Kaiso expression in African patients

compared to US HIV patients (p = 0.0044) (Figure 2-

A).



However, a highly significant difference (p =

0.0005) in CD4+ T cells count was observed which

was higher in U.S HIV patients through HIV

progression measured by weeks compared to that of

African Natives (Figure 2-B). Negative correlation

was found between CD4 count and Kaiso expression

in both U.S and African Natives patients Figures (2C

and 2-D) respectively, with significant difference (p

<0.0001). in African Natives Patients.



HIV viral load measures the number of HIV

particles or copies in a milliliter (ml) of blood cells.

Viral load decreased overtime (Figure 2-E) in both

African Natives and US patients. However, the viral

load remained significantly higher (p = 0.0417) in

African Natives (Figure 2-E).



3.4 Pathway Enrichment Analysis of

Kaiso Associated Differential

Expressed Genes

GEO2R from NCBI were used for each dataset to

compare two or more groups of samples in order to

identify genes that are differentially expressed

through experimental conditions. The results

presented as a table of genes ordered by significance.

Significant genes (p value ≤ 0.05) were further

analyzed using GSEA (gene set enrichment analysis),

Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of

Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis were

achieved for the differentially expressed genes.



In GEO2R, a comparison of HIV-1 infection to

healthy control patients in both United States and

African Native patients, heat maps used in order to

identify genes expressed through high and low

expression of Kaiso in both infected groups (Figure

3). Based on the analysis, a total of 530 differentially

expressed genes were identified in US HIV-1 patients

compared to healthy individuals, including 359

upregulated genes and 171 downregulated genes with

p <0.05 and fold change (FC) ≥1.5 set as the threshold

criteria. However, 349 differentially expressed genes

in HIV-1 infected African Native compared to

healthy control individuals with 289 upregulated

genes and 60 downregulated genes with p < 0.05 and

FC ≥1.5.

Figure 2: Negative significant correlation between Kaiso expression and CD4+ T cell count. A. Kaiso expression is

significantly higher in African Natives patients during the progression of HIV-1 infection measured by weeks with a p value

0.004 compared to US patients. B. CD4+ T cells count increase in the first weeks of infection, but decline at week 24 in both

study groups, however, CD4 count is lower in African Natives with highly significant difference (p = 0.0005) to US patients.

C. & D. Negative correlation between Kaiso expression and CD4+ T cells count in both study groups but with a significant

difference in African Natives (AN) (p < 0.0001). E. Viral load (VL) increase significantly and sharply at the first weeks of

infection in African Natives patients compared to US patients (p = 0.041), VL drops rapidly to steady state of viral set point

(VSP) the indicator of AIDS disease progression which is higher in African, this may indicate their progression to AIDS

faster than US patients.



BIOINFORMATICS 2022 - 13th International Conference on Bioinformatics Models, Methods and Algorithms

Figure 3: Gene expression analysis. Heat maps illustrating genes associates with Kaiso expression associated genes in: A. US

HIV1 patients with 530 differentially expressed genes identified, including 359 upregulated genes and 171 downregulated

genes with p <0.05 and fold change (FC) ≥1.5 set as the threshold criteria. B. African HIV-1 patients with 349 significant

expressed genes, 289 upregulated genes and 60 downregulated genes with p < 0.05 and FC ≥1.5. Green color indicates

upregulated genes in correlation to high Kaiso expression while red color indicates downregulated genes in correlation to

high Kaiso expression. Columns indicated patients while rows indicated genes.

Finally, the differentially expressed genes were

further analyzed by GSEA analysis for enriched

KEGG pathways. The results showed two pathways

correlated to Kaiso associated upregulated genes in

US patients (Figure 4-A), including “olfactory

transduction” and “Parkinson disease”, while the

Kaiso associated downregulated differentially

expressed genes were enriched in eight pathways,

“lysosome”, “ribosome”, “olfactory transduction”,

“cytokinecytokine receptor interaction”, “JAK STAT

signaling”, “hematopoietic cell lineage”, “dilated

cardiomyopathy”, “neuroactive ligand receptor

interaction” (Figure 4-B). However, ten different

pathways found in African high Kaiso differentiated

associated upregulated genes which are, “cell cycle”,

“cytokine cytokine receptor interaction”, “cell

adhesion molecules CAMS”, “P53 signaling

pathway”, “olfactory transduction”, “progesterone

mediated oocyte maturation”, and “RNA

degradation”, “oocyte meiosis”, “neuroactive ligand

receptor interaction”, “calcium signaling” (Figure

4C). Whereas, the Kaiso associated downregulated,

differentially expressed genes were enriched in three

pathways, “ribosome”, “Al-Zheimers disease”,

“neurotrophin signaling” (Figure 4-D).

4 DISCUSSION

Racial/ethnic disparities related to HIV-1 infection

and increased incidence of HIV-1 infection in African

ancestry were described in 2016 in the CDC’s HIV

surveillance report (CDC 2017). HIV infections have

been reported more in African born black immigrants

rather than U.S. born blacks (Johnson et al., 2010;

Kent, 2005; Kerani et al., 2008; Ashton et al., 2012)

with higher prevalence in African born compared to

Kaiso expression to HIV-1 pathogenesis. Results of

US born blacks and US white (Ashton et al., 2012).

Further, it is known that disease progression to AIDS

is much faster in African Natives. However, the

mechanisms underlying in these disparities and faster

progression to AIDS in Africans has not been fully

delineated. Several reported studies including

published reports (Abisoye-Ogunniyan et al., 2018;

Ahmed et al., 2019; Jones et al., 2014; Jones et al.,

2012; Jones et al., 2015; Pierre et al., 2019) showed

higher expression of Kaiso in patients with different

cancers including prostate cancer. The level of Kaiso

expression and the pathways linked to higher level of

expression appear to be linked with a few

intermediary pathways, including the Wnt pathway

(Iioka et al., 2009). While some of these pathways

have also been linked to the pathogenesis of HIV

infections and the expression of several other

immune-related genes, to our knowledge no studies

have been reported showing the role of Kaiso in the

pathogenesis of HIV infections. More importantly,

level of Kaiso expression in HIV-infected African

versus all HIV infected patients in the U.S. has not

been reported.



A significant finding in this data analysis is the

higher level of Kaiso expression in HIV infected

African patients compared to patients in the United

States. This is the first study showing a significant

negative correlation between Kaiso expression and

CD4 count in HIV-1 infection (Figure 4). In addition,

the viral load and viral set point (VSP) were

significantly higher in African HIV-1 patients

compared to US patients (p = 0.0417). A few other

studies have referred to the importance of viral set

point as a key indicator for HIV progression to AIDS

and survival (Mellors et al., 1996; Quinn et al., 2000;

Mellors et al., 1997). Clearly, no studies have been

reported previously that correlated higher level of

Kaiso expression to HIV-1 pathogenesis. Results of

Novel Role of Transcriptional Factor Kaiso in HIV Infection

A. Upregulated genes in US patients



Downregulated genes in US patients



Upregulated genes in African Natives



Downregulated genes in African Natives

Figure 4: Pathways correlated to high expression of Kaiso. Enrichment plot, heat map, and leading-edge analysis for the gene

sets of Kaiso associated differentially expressed genes identified in comparison between HIV infected US patients and African

Native patients. A. US Kaiso related upregulated pathways genes. B. Downregulated pathways genes. C. African Kaiso related

upregulated pathways genes. D. Downregulated pathways genes. Enrichment plot of the ranked list of significant genes (p ≤

0.05), and the heat map that shows the genes in the leading-edge subsets. In a heat map, expression values are represented by

colors, where the colors (red, pink, light blue, dark blue) represent the range of expression values (high, moderate, low, and

lowest) where red colored are upregulated genes and dark blue are downregulated genes. Bar graphs shows each gene and the

number of subsets in which it appears.

BIOINFORMATICS 2022 - 13th International Conference on Bioinformatics Models, Methods and Algorithms

this data analysis study gives a preliminary indication

that higher rate of HIV progression to AIDS in

African patients compared to US patients may at least

partly be due to higher level of Kaiso expression.



The host factor β-catenin is the main component

of Wnt/β- catenin-signaling pathway. A study by

Iioka et al, 2009 found that, Kaiso functions as a

bimodal regulator of canonical Wnt signaling as

Kaiso enhanced Wnt/β-catenin signaling when it has

mild ectopic expression. While, moderate and higher

expression of Kaiso inhibited Wnt/βcatenin signaling

and Kaiso knockdown appears to suppress Wnt/β-

catenin activity. The same study showed that Kaiso



Binding to HDAC1 may inhibit the complex

formation between β- catenin and HDAC1 and this

may increase the negative effects of HDAC1 from the

β- catenin/TCF complex (Iioka et al., 2009).

Nonetheless, Wnt/β- catenin signaling has been

shown to interact with the life cycle of HIV-1during

infection and latency (Al-Harthi, 2012).



Different studies found that Wnt/β-catenin

pathway may be involved in HIV pathogenesis as

TCF4 has been shown to represses Tat-mediated

transactivation of HIV promoter (LTR) in astrocyte

cells (Wortman et al., 2002; Rossi et al., 2006;

Carroll-Anzinger et al., 2007). Wnt β-catenin

signaling interacts with the life cycle and replication

of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 in different

target cells including, peripheral blood mononuclear

cells and astrocytes (Al-Harthi, 2012).



Our study revealed that upregulation of Kaiso is

associated with upregulation of olfactory function

genes in both US and African patients (Figure 4-A

and C), which act as a marker of HIV associated

neurological impairment (Serby et al., 1992). Studies

have shown that HIV infected patients with

neurocognitive impairment had diminished odor

sensitivity (Brody et al., 1990; Hornung et al., 1998;

Razani et al., 1996). In addition, high expression of

Kaiso was detected as methyl CpG binding protein in

nervous system cells (NS) (Martin Caballero et al.,

2009). In comparison, Kaiso improves the

locomotion mechanism and depressed behavior in a

review of Kaiso protein as a brain and behavior

regulator, Kaiso deficient mice has shown

antidepressant-like effect (Kulikova and Kulikov,

2018). Yet, Parkinson disease may develop early in

HIV infection following viral infection within the

basal ganglia or late in the disease course in

combination with AIDS dementia complex (ADC), or

as a result of underlying chronic neuroinflammation

leading to basal ganglia dysfunction, altered blood-

brain barrier (BBB) permeability, and

neurodegeneration (Berger et al., 2000).



Our study also revealed that Kaiso associated

pathways of African upregulated genes are p53, cell

cycle and CAMS (Figure 4-C). Cell cycle

dysregulated after HIV infection due to the virus

dominating cellular transcriptional machinery to

increase viral replication and proliferation (Devadas

et al., 2016). While, p53 is the main factor in host

restriction of HIV-1 replication and infection

(Mukerjee et al., 2010). However, the infection with

the virus enhances the expression of p53 in primary

CD4+ T cells (Imbeault et al., 2009a; Imbeault et al.,

2009b) in addition, p53 facilitates HIV-1 binding to

host cells by increasing expression of CD4 and

integration into host chromosome through

upregulation of integration cofactor p75 (Wang et al.,

2017a) and the activation of p53 target genes will lead

to cell apoptosis (Genini et al., 2001). Kaiso may

contribute to CD4 depletion in HIV-1 infection since

Kaiso regulate p53 and increase cell cycle arrest and

apoptosis (Koh et al., 2014) Yet, apoptosis could be

inhibited by blocking the interaction between Kaiso

and p53 by NF-kB (RelA/p65) expression which also

lead to depletion of nuclear Kaiso and sequestering

Kaiso in the cytoplasm (Koh et al., 2015). NF-kB

(RelA/p65) is important for HIV-1 transcription

initiation in primary infection and in reactivation of

HIV-1 latently infected cells (Wang et al., 2017b).



One of the upregulated pathways in African HIV-

1 infected patients correlated to high expression of

Kaiso is cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) that play a

basic role in regulating immune cell function such as

immune cell trafficking into tissues, cell proliferation

and immunological synapse formation during

homeostasis, inflammation and cancer (Harjunpää et

al., 2019). Circulating cell adhesion molecules such

as intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and

vascular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) are

significantly increase in HIV positive and AIDS

patients (Greenwood et al., 1998; Seigneur et al.,

1997). Also, HIV-1 gp120 significantly upregulate

ICAM-1 on brain endothelial cells in animal model

(Toneatto et al., 1999)) and increase ICAM-1 in glial

cells and leukocytes (Ren et al., 2002).



Cell adhesion cofactor p120-catenin, is the only

known binding partner for Kaiso (Daniel and

Reynolds, 1999). Interestingly, in another study by

Rodova et al, (2004) revealed that catenin delta which

is a brain-specific member of the p120 catenin

subfamily, create a complex with Kaiso and this

complex may regulates synapse-specific transcription

at the neuromuscular junction (Rodova et al., 2004).



Although multiple studies documented the role of

Kaiso in different cancer types, there are no studies

determining the Kaiso role in HIV-1 infection. In

Novel Role of Transcriptional Factor Kaiso in HIV Infection

summary, this study with bioinformatics analysis of

the HIV infected patient data showed that Kaiso

expression is significantly higher in HIV-1 infected

males of younger ages of African ancestry compared

to other ethnic groups. Analysis of HIV-1 patient

datasets revealed that Kaiso might have a role in HIV

infection and replication in African Native patients

through different immune system genes and its

association with multiple intermediary pathways.

Moreover, a negative significant correlation between

Kaiso expression and CD4+ T cell count and this may

correlate the depletion of CD4+T cells in HIV-1

infection with Kaiso expression, additionally, our

analysis showed a positive correlation between Kaiso

expression and HIV viral load that was higher in

African ancestry compared to US patients. Taken

together, we suggest that Kaiso may act as a novel

therapeutic agent in HIV1 infection.



Further studies to analyze the role of Kaiso in

other HIV-1 infected groups needed, such as elite

controllers, and to investigate the role of Kaiso in

association with expression of different immune

system genes.



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